Figures and Tables xv
Preface xvii
Abbreviations and Symbols xix

Part I Preliminaries i
1 Semantics in Linguistics 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Semantics and Semiotics 5
1.3 Three Challenges in Doing Semantics 5
1.4 Meeting the Challenges 7
1.5 Semantics in a Model of Grammar 8
1.6 Some Important Assumptions 10
1.7 Summary 17
1.8
Exercises 17
Further Reading 19
Notes 19
References 20
2 Meaning, Thought, and Reality 22
2.1 Introduction 22
2.2 Reference 24
2.3 Reference as a Theory of Meaning 29
2.4 Mental Representations 31
2.5 Wbrds3 Concepts, and Thinking 37
2.6 Summary 42
Exercises 43
Further Reading 44
Notes 44
References 45

Part II Semantic Description 49
3 Word Meaning 51
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Words and Grammatical Categories 52
3.3 Words and Lexical Items 53
3.4 Problems with Pinning Down Word Meaning 56
3.5 Lexical Relations 59
3.5.8 Portion－^mass 67
3.6 Derivational Relations 67
3.7 Lexical Typology 69
3.8 Summary 75
Exercises 76
Further Reading 78
Notes 79
References 80
4 Sentence Relations and Truth 84
4.1 Introduction 84
4.2 Logic and Truth 86
4.3 Necessary Truth, A Priori Truth, and Analyticity 91
4.4 Entailment 94
4.5 Presupposition 97
4.6 Summary 105
Exercises 106
Further Reading 108
Notes 108
References 110
5 Sentence Semantics 1: Situations 112
5.1 Introduction 112
5.2 Classifying Situations 113
5.3 Modality and Evidentiality 134
5.4 Summary 142
Exercises 143
Further Reading 146
Notes 146
References 147
6 Sentence Semantics 2: Participants 149
6.1 Introduction: Classifying Participants 149
6.2 Thematic Roles 150
6.3 Grammatical Relations and Thematic Roles 155
6.4 Verbs and Thematic Role Grids 156
6.5 Problems with Thematic Roles 158
6.6 The Motivation for Identifying Thematic Roles 161
6.7 Causation 164
6.8 Voice 166
6.9 Classifiers and Noun Classes 175
6.10 Summary 178
Exercises 179
Further Reading 182
Notes 182
References 184
7 Context and Inference 189
7.1 Introduction 189
7.2 Deixis 190
7.3 Reference and Context 196
7.4 Knowledge as Context 197
7.5 Information Structure 203
7.6 Inference 208
7.7 Conversational Implicature 210
7.8 Lexical Pragmatics 217
7.9 Summary 219
Exercises 220
Further Reading 224
Notes 224
References 225
8 Functions of Language: Speech as Action 229
8.1 Introduction 229
8.2 Austin5s Speech Act Theory 232
8.3 Categorizing Speech Acts 237
8.4 Indirect Speech Acts 239
8.5 Sentence Types 245
8.6 Summary 247
Exercises 248
Further Reading 250
Notes 250
References 252

Part III Theoretical Approaches 257
9 Meaning Components 259
9.1 Introduction 259
9.2 Lexical Relations in CA 260
9.3 Katz’s Semantic Theory 262
9.4 Grammatical Rules and Semantic Components 265
9.5 Thlmy’s Typology of Motion Events 273
9.6 Jackendoffs Conceptual Structure 278
9.7 Pustejovsky’s Generative Lexicon 287
9.8 Problems with Components of Meaning 294
9.9 Summary 295
Exercises 295
Further Reading 299
Notes 300
References 301
10 Formal Semantics 305
10.1 Introduction 305
10.2 Model－Theoretical Semantics 307
10.3 Translating English into a Logical Metalanguage 308
10.4 The Semantics of the Logical Metalanguage 315
10.5 Checking the Truth－Value of Sentences 317
10.6 Word Meaning: Meaning Postulates 321
10.7 Natural Language Quantifiers and Higher－Order Logic 323
10.8 Intensionality 331
10.9 Dynamic Approaches to Discourse 336
10.10 Summary 344
Exercises 345
Further Reading 348
Notes 348
References 350
11 Cognitive Semantics 353
11.1 Introduction 353
11.2 Categorization 356
11.3 Polysemy 363
11.4 Metaphor 369
11.5 Metonymy 376
11.6 Mental Spaces 377
11.7 Langacker’s Cognitive Grammar 388
11.8 Construction Grammar 392
11.9 Summary 394
Exercises 395
Further Reading 398
Notes 398
References 400
Solutions to Exercises 405
Glossary 435
Index 458